• Information Technology
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The power of words and ideas differs from that of the mysterious energy locked within an atomic nucleus or that of solar photons striking a photovoltaic cell… but it can be mighty indeed. “Information technology” encompasses the numerous ways to store, project, and exhibit that power – from the first pictographs to the Internet and beyond.

Most present-day technologies for gathering, recording, transmitting, and otherwise working with information are electronic. But useful applications of electricity date back only to TL5, which is also when mechanical calculators entered widespread use. In TL0-4 societies, the main information-processing system is the mind. Low-tech information technologies are aids to human perception, memory, thought, and communication. All are LC4.

The most important observational device in low-tech societies is the eye. There are no artificial visual sensors, and there’s no way to form images using wavelengths other than visible ones. Optical technologies that aid human vision become theoretically possible with the invention of glass, and the Greeks and Romans had a decent understanding of the optics of mirrors, or catoptrics. However, sophisticated optical devices only appear at TL4.

Unless otherwise stated, TL3-4 optical instruments give -2 to Vision and related rolls; see Defective Vision (p. 42). As well, vision is limited by the horizon; see Visual Signals (pp. 48-49) and the Horizon Table (p. 49).

Technologies aiding other senses are largely absent at TL0-4, although TL4 does see the first mention of the ear trumpet (below).

Eyeglasses were invented in Italy around 1285 A.D. Convex lenses corrected farsightedness, including difficulty in reading with increasing age. Nicholas of Cusa described using concave lenses to correct nearsightedness in a treatise written 1453-1458; glasses for the nearsighted are TL4. Treat either sort as a Mitigator (p. B112) for its form of Bad Sight (p. B123). At TL3-4, glasses are held up to the eyes by the frame or a handle (a lorgnette design), occupying a hand, or are clamped to the nose (a pince-nez design). Pince-nez fall off on a roll of 12 or less on 3d if the wearer moves faster than a walk; they’re often attached to a chain. $100, 0.25 lb.

The ear trumpet has a wide, flaring horn at the end of a conical tube. The narrow end is held to the ear. By gathering sound waves over a large area, it amplifies a faint sound for the listener. Originally developed for use at sea, to hear shouts from other ships, it was later adopted by the hard of hearing to mitigate their disability. Creative spies will think of other uses! Increases the range at which a sound can be heard 8¥ (see Hearing, p. B358). $15, 2 lbs.

In 1609, Dutch lens grinder Hans Lippershey invented the microscope, which used lenses to see nearby small objects. In 1673, Anton van Leeuwenhoek began reporting his biological discoveries, which included microorganisms and human sperm. Early microscopes have 40¥ magnification (eliminating -9 in size penalties for an object on a slide). Chromatic and spherical aberration impose Vision and skill penalties of -2 (quality). $200, 2 lbs.

The first spyglass was invented in 1608 by Hans Lippershey, who received a large bounty from the Dutch government. A spyglass has two concentric tubes, which hold two lenses set fairly close together; sliding them back and forth adjusts the magnification for different ranges. It’s substantial enough to serve as a well-balanced light club, but such abuse means it will never work as a spyglass again!

This model has 4¥ magnification, allowing the user to ignore -2 in range penalties to Vision rolls while scanning for a particular object. After spotting his target, he can take an Aim maneuver to focus on it; this eliminates -4 in range penalties for that target, but gives no bonus to see other things.

Spyglasses and telescopes also have Bulk scores, like ranged weapons (p. B270); this one has Bulk -2. Bulk penalizes both Holdout rolls and Vision rolls to scan the environment for a particular object. To offset the latter penalty, take extra time to scan (p. B346). $100, 4 lbs.

At TL4, mirrors and lenses distort the images they deliver. Optical instruments therefore penalize Vision and vision-dependent skill rolls. While multiple lenses or mirrors with different properties can cancel out each other’s distortions, this technology isn’t perfected until TL5. Nearly all TL4 instruments give penalties:

• Spherical aberration occurs because magnifying lenses and mirrors have curved surfaces, which blur the images they form, for -1 (quality). Poorly made specimens may have other geometric irregularities, such as astigmatism, that give an additional -1 or -2.

• Chromatic aberration occurs because lenses have different focal lengths for light of different wavelengths, turning a point of white light into a tiny blur of different colors. This gives another -1 (quality).

• Lenses demand high-quality glass, without bubbles or uneven density. A lens made from ordinary glass – even if perfectly formed – gives -3 (quality) for poor material, in addition to the above penalties. Using a device that gives such penalties causes fatigue through eyestrain: 1 FP/5 minutes. For continued use after reaching 0 FP, or for any use of optics with a penalty worse than -2, roll vs. HT after every 5 minutes. Failure means moderate pain (p. B428); if use continues, later failures worsen this to severe pain, then terrible pain, and finally agony. Critical failures cause immediate agony! Pain endures until the sufferer regains positive FP through rest, or a minimum of 10 minutes.

Measurement assigns numerical values to things that can’t be counted – lengths, weights, times, etc. – by choosing a unit and counting how many units are equal to the thing being measured. The earliest measurements were rough estimates, such as using a human forearm to measure length; one man’s forearm might be longer than another’s, but the difference wasn’t enough to matter in most TL0 societies. With the growth of trade and the emergence of bureaucracy at TL1, more exact measures were needed; using the wrong measurement might cost someone money! Early governments often prescribed what units should be used in their marketplaces, and inspected measuring devices to make sure they were accurate. The balance (p. 44) became a symbol of justice very early in history.

At TL4, mirrors and lenses distort the images they deliver. Optical instruments therefore penalize Vision and vision-dependent skill rolls. While multiple lenses or mirrors with different properties can cancel out each other’s distortions, this technology isn’t perfected until TL5. Nearly all TL4 instruments give penalties:

• Spherical aberration occurs because magnifying lenses and mirrors have curved surfaces, which blur the images they form, for -1 (quality). Poorly made specimens may have other geometric irregularities, such as astigmatism, that give an additional -1 or -2.

• Chromatic aberration occurs because lenses have different focal lengths for light of different wavelengths, turning a point of white light into a tiny blur of different colors. This gives another -1 (quality).

• Lenses demand high-quality glass, without bubbles or uneven density. A lens made from ordinary glass – even if perfectly formed – gives -3 (quality) for poor material, in addition to the above penalties. Using a device that gives such penalties causes fatigue through eyestrain: 1 FP/5 minutes. For continued use after reaching 0 FP, or for any use of optics with a penalty worse than -2, roll vs. HT after every 5 minutes. Failure means moderate pain (p. B428); if use continues, later failures worsen this to severe pain, then terrible pain, and finally agony. Critical failures cause immediate agony! Pain endures until the sufferer regains positive FP through rest, or a minimum of 10 minutes.

Measurement of angles started at TL0 with awareness of how far above the horizon the sun has traveled (which also measures time) and of the four cardinal directions. At TL1, right angles were used in architecture and civil engineering. The ancient Mesopotamians divided the circle into six parts, and subdivided each part into 60 degrees (a total of 360 degrees) and each degree into 60 minutes. At TL4, minutes were further divided into 60 seconds. Instruments for angular measurement were important in surveying and, later, in geometry, astronomy, and navigation.

Level (TL1). An A-shaped frame with a plumb bob hanging from the apex. When it’s placed on a flat surface, the plumb line’s deflection from a marked center point on the crossbar indicates the slope. $15, 4 lbs.

Surveyor’s Cross (TL1). This tall staff (also called a groma) has a horizontally balanced cross on top and a sharp spike at the bottom for planting it firmly in the ground. Adjustable plumb bobs on the cross’ ends keep it level in a plane. Sighting along the plane lets the user mark spots at the same elevation; sighting with the plumb lines marks an alignment. $75, 6 lbs.

Chorobates (TL2). A long (up to 20’), narrow bench with a water trough and plumb bobs hanging from the bottom. Both the water level and the angle of the bobs provide a level reading. Typically used only on large-scale projects, such as road and aqueduct construction. A 10’ chorobates: $540, 145 lbs.

Cross-Staff (TL2). A short (3’-4’) staff with a sliding crossbar. The user points the staff at one point and slides the crossbar until it appears to touch another desired point. The distance along the staff indicates the visual angle between the two points. $45, 4 lbs.

Dioptra (late TL2). A tube or set of sights on a platform whose position can be adjusted by screws. The dioptra can give vertical and horizontal angles from the observation point to an object – but only for stationary objects, due to the adjustment time (at least 2-3 minutes per observation). $120, 5 lbs.

Astrolabe (TL3). Developed in the second century A.D., the astrolabe came into widespread use in the Muslim Near East. It has four parts. The mater is a flat plate 5”-10” in diameter, marked with celestial coordinates for a given latitude, centered on the pole and including the horizon, the meridian, and altitude and azimuth circles. Some astrolabes have interchangeable plates for different latitudes. On top of this is the rete, a metal grid with pointers for different stars. On the back is the alidade, a rotating pointer with a sighting hole used to point it at a particular star. A pin through the center holds the other parts together. The astrolabe doesn’t merely measure angles – it can perform hundreds of computations. Treat it as basic equipment for Astronomy. Small astrolabe: $250, 5 lbs. Model with interchangeable plates: $200, 4 lbs., plus $100, 1 lb. per plate.

Kamal (TL3). Used by Muslim navigators to measure a celestial body’s height above the northern or southern horizon. A square board is held at a distance where it just spans the visible gap between the body and the horizon; the length of a cord attached to it indicates the angle. $25, 1 lb.

Quadrant (TL3). A piece of solid material in the shape of a quarter circle, with degrees marked along the edge. The user sights on a celestial body along one edge; a plumb bob hangs down vertically, indicating the body’s elevation above the horizon in degrees. It can also be used to estimate an object’s height via trigonometry. $35, 3 lbs. (Much larger quadrants are used in TL3 astronomical observatories; see GURPS Low-Tech Companion 1.)

Gunner’s Quadrant (TL4). Invented in 1545 by Tartaglia, this gadget has a long arm attached to the gun barrel and a short arm at right angles to it. A plumb bob indicates the gun’s elevation, from which range can be estimated. $45, 4 lbs.

Primitive units of length are mostly based on the human body. Common examples are the hand (4”, used to measure the height of horses), the foot, and the cubit (the distance from elbow to fingertips, typically 18”).

Measuring Rod (TL1). Standardized measures of length came into use in the oldest civilizations, including Egypt, Sumer, and the Indus Valley. Egypt had a standard royal cubit, a 21” granite rod to which other measuring rods could be compared. The Egyptian cubit rod was divided into 28 digits, and was often marked with fractions of a digit, from 1/2 down to 1/16. $5, 0.5 lb.

Odometer (TL2). A cart or chariot wheel turns a gear as it rolls; after every mile, a pebble drops into a box, giving a running count of miles traveled. Vitruvius described this mechanism around 15 B.C., but Alexander the Great’s chroniclers gave travel distances accurate to better than 1 mile in 250, which were almost certainly mechanically measured. Chinese inventor Zhang Heng (78-139 A.D.) is credited with a similar device. $100, 10 lbs.

There’s no direct way to measure area. A rectangle’s area can be found by measuring its length and width, and multiplying them together. Areas of other shapes can be broken up into rectangles. Geometry started out as formulas for the area of fields of different shapes. Land measurement is the task of surveyors.

Surveyor’s Kit (TL2). A well-equipped surveyor from Rome to the Renaissance has a surveyor’s cross, a dioptra, two 10’ poles, 120’ of cord (stiffened with wax to retain its length), and 20 posts to mark points on the ground. $245, 40 lbs.

Volume can be measured directly, by filling a standard container with water or sand and pouring it into a larger container repeatedly. It can also be calculated geometrically – especially when the larger container is full and emptying it isn’t convenient. Volume measurement was an outgrowth of large-scale agriculture at TL1.

Measuring Basket or Jug (TL1). A basket, cup, jug, or jar with a standard volume, normally marked on the outside. Subdivisions are estimated, not measured; early containers are opaque, and gradations on the interior surface would be awkward to read. Sizes vary from tiny cups to 35-cubic-foot barrels, or tuns (the origin of the word “ton”). See Containers and Storage (p. 34).

Units of weight originated at TL1, as an outgrowth of trade. The smallest unit of weight is often one grain of the local staple food.

Balance (TL1). The original weighing device, with two pans hanging from opposite ends of a beam that pivots on a central point. One pan holds the thing being weighed; the other holds standardized weights, which are counted when the pans are in equilibrium. Balances come in varied sizes; the ones described here are portable models, with lead weights. They can’t weigh anything heavier than the total of their counterweights! Small balance: $25, 1 lb. (set of lead weights: $10, 5 lbs.). Larger balance: $75, 4 lbs. (set of lead weights: $50, 20 lbs.).

Steelyard (TL2). The type of scale that many people have encountered in a doctor’s office: The person or object being weighed rests on a platform or in a pan, and a relatively small counterweight is slid along a beam until its leverage balances the weight. The counterweight’s position is read as a weight with the help of numbered gradations. This device depends on a good understanding of leverage. A small steelyard was found in the ruins of Pompeii. Steelyard that can weigh up to 300 lbs.: $100, 20 lbs. (weights included).

Time, like length, has a natural starting place for measurements: the apparent movement of heavenly bodies across the sky. Every society knows about the day; most societies use the month and/or the year. Keeping track of time on this scale is done with calendars. Times shorter than a day become important in TL1 societies, for such purposes as keeping records of how long people have worked. Tracking the sun across the sky offers one way to do this, but a variety of inventions provide more precise measures.

A clock measures time on a continuing basis throughout the day. There are two styles of measuring time. One divides day and night each into the same number of hours, and makes daytime hours longer in summer and nighttime hours longer in winter. The other keeps every hour the same length year-round.

Mechanical clocks can be made more accurate with more precise construction. Use the equipment grades on p. B345. Good-quality timepieces are twice as accurate; fine-quality ones are five times as accurate.

Clepsydra (TL1). Invented in Egypt around 1550 B.C., the water clock is a vessel filled with water, which flows out through a small hole in the bottom. In Egyptian clocks, this was drilled through a gem set into a larger opening. Lines at intervals down the inside mark off the hours. Water flows out more slowly as its level falls; a properly designed clepsydra has tapered sides to compensate. The clepsydra measures fixed-length hours. However, it can be built with different scales for different times of year, to give variable hours. Flow speed varies with temperature and humidity; the clepsydra is accurate to the nearest 10 minutes. $500, 15 lbs.

Sundial (TL1). Another Egyptian invention, dating to 1500 B.C., the sundial consists of a vertical projection, or gnomon, that casts a shadow onto a painted or carved surface. The shadow’s position marks the hours. The sundial measures hours of variable length. Sundials are almost perfectly accurate at the latitude for which they’re made. However, they only work during the day – and only if there’s enough sunlight to cast a shadow. $300, 95 lbs.

Portable Sundial (TL2). A more advanced Greek invention for telling time: a sundial small enough to be carried easily. To tell time in a new location, it must be aligned to the noonday sun. $100, 2 lbs.

Regulated Clepsydra (TL2). The Greek inventor Ctesibius devised a clepsydra that avoided the flow rate changing as the tank emptied. A float valve in the tank (like the one in a toilet tank) let in more water as the level sank. Time was measured by the water level in a second tank that received the outflow. Accurate to the nearest 2 minutes. $750, 25 lbs.

Graduated Candle (TL3). First mentioned in Chinese writings of the sixth century A.D.; the form described here dates to the reign of Alfred the Great of England (878). Consists of six 12” candles, each of which takes 4 hours to burn down; each candle is divided into 12 20-minute sections. The burning candle is kept in a case with translucent horn sides. This and later clocks measure hours of fixed length. Candles: $40, 6 lbs. Case: $15, 0.7 lb.

Water-Driven Clock (TL3). The Chinese experimented with mechanical clocks that worked like later European weight-driven clocks, but with a water tank rather than a solid weight. A regulated water flow drove a mill wheel that turned gears. The invention never came into common use.

Weight-Driven Clock (TL3). A clock powered by hanging weights, whose fall turns a shaft within the mechanism. Lacking a pendulum or other regulator, it’s accurate only to the nearest hour, which it signals by ringing a bell. Some models had dials, but these functioned as astronomical displays rather than for keeping time. Each clock was individually made and should be treated as a prototype, but on average: $450, 100 lbs.

Pendulum Clock (TL4). This was invented by Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens in 1656, based on the discovery that a pendulum always takes the same amount of time to swing back and forth. Such clocks could achieve an accuracy of 1 minute in a day. Wall or mantel clock: $300, 20 lbs. Longcase (“grandfather”) clock: $600, 100 lbs.

Spring-Driven Clock (TL4). In 1660, Robert Hooke and Christiaan Huygens (they had a dispute over priority) invented the balance spring as a way of making the balance wheel reliable; this performed the functions of a pendulum, but was much smaller. It made possible the first reliable pocket watches, accurate to 10 minutes a day. $100, neg.

A timer doesn’t keep running for as long as a clock – usually an hour or less. It can serve as an improvised clock, but its main use is to measure a rapid process (like the later stop watch) or to monitor the time assigned to a task.

Miniature Clepsydra (TL3). Invented by Chinese artificer Li Lan in 450, this variant on the water clock was made of jade and used mercury as its working fluid. It holds enough mercury to run for two Chinese hours (28 minutes 48 seconds). For its time, it’s an ultra-precision instrument, measuring intervals as short as 1/20 of a Chinese hour. $500, 8 lbs.

Sandglass (TL3). The oldest record of this device is a painting by Ambrogio Lorenzetti, dated 1338. A sandglass consists of two glass vessels joined by a narrow neck through which a granular material flows at a steady rate. Despite the name, ordinary sand isn’t suitable; fine marble dust works better. Sandglasses – being relatively unaffected by conditions at sea – were used both in navigation (pp. 50-52) and to time watches. Standard half-hour sandglass: $50, 3 lbs.

Scientific experimenters at TL4 invented devices to measure other aspects of the physical world. These early instruments were often slow and inaccurate, but the very idea of measuring heat or pressure led to a revolution in physics. The thermometer and barometer are experimental prototypes, not commercial products, in this period.

Barometer (TL4). In 1643, Evangelista Torricelli invented the barometer: a column of mercury, the height of which fluctuated with changing air pressure. In 1660, Otto von Guericke used it to predict the weather. This design is a mercury-filled glass tube with height gradations, sealed at the top but open to a pool of mercury at the bottom.

Thermometer (TL4). In 1600, Galileo devised an experimental thermometer that used air as the working fluid. Several other models were developed in the 17th century, culminating with Gabriel Fahrenheit’s alcohol thermometer in 1709. A thermometer can ensure accurate temperature measurement for processes such as distillation (see Distillation, pp. 11-12).

Recordkeeping preserves knowledge, compensating for human forgetfulness. Better ways of maintaining records make keeping track of events and relationships easier. This facilitates the division of labor, which in turn lets human societies grow more complex and accumulate specialized lore – notably technological know-how. Technological knowledge was itself recorded in such forms as Egyptian medical guides and Greek treatises on artillery. Prices of records – be they pictures, maps, or written documents – vary a great deal. See GURPS Low-Tech Companion 1 for suggestions.

Pictures go back to prehistory; Paleolithic cave paintings are regarded as art treasures today. The ability to draw or paint an image of a person, animal, or object, given suitable pigments, is TL0. The skill involved is Artist (Drawing, Illumination, or Painting).

In the Renaissance (TL4), a more sophisticated technique entered general use (though some Greek painters anticipated it at TL2): perspective. This projects space onto a flat surface to achieve a more convincing illusion – for example, the sides of a road coming together at the horizon. Renaissance painters delighted in tricks of perspective, such as Mantegna’s Dead Christ (1466), with its feet toward the viewer.

People began drawing – or building – maps at TL0. These emphasized directions and the paths joining different places. Land-area measurement at TL1, enabled by tools such as the surveyor’s cross (p. 43), led to the practice of drawing maps to scale.

All flat maps of the Earth are inaccurate, because there’s no way to project a sphere onto a plane without distortion. The best maps are globes. Globes entered use at TL2, after Greek geometer Eratosthenes realized that solar rays at different latitudes struck the ground at different angles because the Earth’s surface is curved. The first globe was made by Crates of Mallus around 150 B.C.; the oldest surviving one is part of a statue, the Farnese Atlas, sculpted in 140 A.D. Muslim scholars began making globes in the ninth century. Europeans resumed the practice (appropriately!) in 1492; globes became widespread at TL4.

The mathematics of map projections was developed in the ancient world by Marinos of Tyre, and popularized by Claudius Ptolemaeus. Systematic study of map projections took off at TL4. The best-known approach, the Mercator projection, was first used in 1569. See Navigation (p. 52) for more on maps.

With the development of printing at TL4, the publication of atlases made maps widely available.

Writing was invented at TL1, in the cities of the ancient Near East, China, and Mesoamerica. Only the Peruvians attained urbanization without written records (they relied on knotted cords, called quipu, as memory aids). Written records can be kept using a variety of media.

Practically any solid material can have writing impressed on it. Leather, wood, ivory, and stone can be cut into letters; early Chinese writing survives on carved bones and pieces of tortoise shell. With metals, it’s more efficient to prepare a mold and pour in molten metal.

Stonecutting (TL1) is the most common way of recording text, because stone lasts longer than organic materials while being easier to work with than metal. Inscriptions take a long time and are limited to short texts; each line of text is a day’s work.

Small pieces of carved stone can be used to press a design into clay or molten wax to seal a document, or as a signature.

Cylinder Seal (TL1). Invented in ancient Sumer, cylinder seals were rolled over moist clay – and later, wax – to leave the impression of a short inscription, often a signature. Typical cylinder seals are carved from semiprecious stones. $20, neg.

Signet Ring (TL2). Performs the same function as a cylinder seal, but the image is carved into the flat face of the stone of a ring. The wearer makes a fist and presses the ring into the wax that seals a letter. $30, neg.

Soft solid media are erasable and reusable by smoothing their surfaces out. They’re often used to take notes and prepare drafts, which can be corrected before being transferred to permanent media. Writing is done using a stylus.

Clay Tablet (TL1). The oldest writing medium, developed in ancient Mesopotamia around 3200 B.C. Clay tablets have limited reuses, because they dry and harden when exposed to air. Size varies, but a typical tablet is 12” high, 6” wide, and 1” thick; holds 100 words; and weighs 5 lbs. The tablet itself normally costs nothing.

Stylus (TL1). A rigid tool – usually reed or wood – used to make impressions in a soft surface. One end is sharp for writing; the other is blunt for rubbing out mistakes. $3, neg. A metal stylus (TL2) can be used as an improvised dagger (see Improvised Weapons, p. 63): $6, neg.

Wax Tablet (TL2). This was the standard medium for Roman clerical workers. A very shallow box holds a layer of wax, which can be written on with a stylus. Two or more tablets can be linked together by hinges. Small tablet (5”¥6”) that holds about 60 words: $7, 0.2 lb. Large tablet (8”¥12”) that holds about 200 words: $20, 0.5 lb. Wealthy people use tablets backed with ivory instead of wood: +4 CF.

Flat media are written on not by cutting into their surfaces, but by applying pigment to them. Normally this is ink, applied with a brush or a pen.

Barkcloth (TL0). Mostly used for clothing, but can be drawn upon. Gives -2 (quality) to legibility. One pound costs $8 and is 25 letter-sized sheets.

Leather (TL1). Leather can be dyed, painted, drawn on, or written on, but it isn’t ideal for writing; -2 (quality) to legibility. One pound costs $8 and is 25 sheets.

Papyrus (TL1). A standard medium in ancient Egypt. Sheets can be glued together to form a long strip usable in a scroll. Normally, only one side is written on. Papyrus survives nearly indefinitely in desert climates, but breaks down after a century in moister areas. One pound costs $12 and is 50 sheets.

Potsherds (TL1). The ancient Egyptians first used broken pieces of pottery for note-taking and school exercises; the Athenians later used them as ballots. Potsherds are free anywhere pottery is used. A potsherd big enough for 100 words weighs 0.75 lb.

Leaves, Stems, and Bark (TL2). Many plant materials were used as media without being processed into paper; e.g., palm leaves in India, bamboo strips in China (typically 9”¥1/2”), and birch-bark strips for Buddhist texts in India. These are free in the regions where they’re used; roll vs. Naturalist, Professional Skill (Scribe), or Survival to locate a supply. Bamboo strips bound together into “pages” are about 1/8” thick, and $0.25, 0.1 lb. per page.

Parchment and Vellum (TL2). Parchment and vellum are animal skins treated to produce superior writing materials. Writing on vellum gives +1 (quality) to legibility. One pound of parchment costs $12 and is 20 sheets; one pound of vellum costs $60 and is 50 sheets.

Paper (TL3). Invented in China by the first century B.C., paper spread worldwide as a medium for writing and later for printing, reaching the Near East by 800 A.D. and Europe over the next few centuries. At TL4, the Chinese developed a less-expensive paper based on bamboo, which helped make books cheaper in China than in Europe. One pound costs $6 and is 100 sheets. Halve cost for inexpensive paper at TL4.

Parchment and vellum (above) are expensive; discarding a botched copying job leaves the scribe out a lot of money. Scribes developed methods of recycling used parchment. A parchment sheet that has been erased and reused is called a palimpsest. Hasty cleaning costs 20% of the original price, and produces poor-quality writing material (-2 to legibility). Thorough cleaning costs 50% of the new price, and produces fair-quality writing material (-1 to legibility).

Brush (TL1). A stick with animal-hair bristles tied to it. $2, neg.

Ink (TL1). This water-based solution contains a pigment (e.g., soot) and a binder to keep it from settling out (e.g., gum arabic or lacquer). Western inks are stored in liquid form; a pint is $2.50, 1 lb. Asian inks are produced in sticks, used with an ink stone and water; enough for a pint of ink is $2.50, 1 oz. These prices purchase black or brown ink. Other earth tones or red: +1 CF. Rarer colors, such as violet: +4 CF.

Ink Stone (TL1). A shallow stone dish for use with ink sticks. The scribe pours a bit of water into the dish and grinds an ink stick into it until it reaches the desired darkness. $20, 2 lbs.

Pen (TL1). This is a tube with a slit and small hollow near the tip to hold ink. At TL1, pens are typically reeds; metal pens appear at TL2, and quills at TL3. Reed or cheap quill pen that will last for 20 pages: $0.25, neg. High-quality quill pen that can be resharpened every 20 pages up to 100 pages: $0.75, neg. Metal pen that won’t wear out: $4, neg.

Pumice (TL1). Lightweight volcanic stone used as an eraser. $3, 0.5 lb.

Stylus (TL2). A metal stylus (see Soft Solid Media, p. 46) can be used to trace faint lines on flat media. Lead, copper, silver (+4 CF), and gold (+99 CF) are all used. Silver is preferred, because its lines can’t be rubbed off. Works best with paper treated with clay or organic primers.

Pencil (TL4). The discovery of a large graphite deposit in Borrowdale, England in 1564 led to the use of graphite sticks for writing. The manufacture of wooden pencils began in Nuremburg, Germany in 1662. A dozen pencils: $4, 0.25 lb.

Egyptian Scribe’s Palette (TL1). Ancient Egyptian scribes carried a case with two depressions for different inks (usually black and red) and a compartment for several pens. While writing, the scribe slung the cord over his shoulder, resting the ink compartments on his chest. $9, 1.5 lbs.

Medieval Scribal Kit (TL3). Medieval and Renaissance European scribes used tools to keep their writing aligned. A typical kit included a ruler, a square, and adjustable calipers. $24, 3 lbs.

Writing Box (TL4). Early scribes wrote on their laps, but during the Middle Ages, special furniture was designed for writing, and by the Renaissance it became portable. The writing box provides a sloping surface on which to write and drawers on the sides to hold paper, ink, and writing tools, but closes up into a small rectangular case. $50, 2 lbs.

Advances in writing include not only new media, but also innovative ways of organizing a document and novel tools for locating and searching it.

From the beginning of writing at TL1 until the emergence of hypertext at TL8, three main document formats have been used:

Tablet (TL1). The oldest form of document, dating to the early Bronze Age: a flat piece of material – such as clay – with characters marked on it or cut into it (see Soft Solid Media, p. 46). Each page is separate. Tablets are mostly used for administrative records, where one tablet suffices to hold all the information on a particular case. Royal scribes may build up archives containing a king’s letters to and from other rulers, chronicles of his reign and conquests, or even literary works such as the story of Gilgamesh (recorded around 1200 B.C.). Such documents may extend over several tablets that must be kept together.

Scroll (late TL1/TL2). A piece of flexible material – a foot wide or less, but many feet long – attached to two cylinders and rolled up on them. Typical materials are papyrus and parchment. The reader picks up the scroll with all the material wrapped around one cylinder, pulls the cylinders apart to expose the start of the text, and rolls it onto the other cylinder as he reads. A typical scroll is 12” wide and 200” long, and has room for about 5,000 words (about as long as a book chapter).

Codex (late TL2/TL3). Developed in the Roman Empire, the codex has been the standard form of book ever since. It consists of a stack of rectangular sheets of paper or a similar material, fastened together along one edge, inside a thick, usually rigid protective cover. This format can hold the equivalent of dozens of scrolls.

Even within a single book, it can be tricky to locate a specific piece of information – that’s why many books have indexes! In an archive, finding the book with the right piece of information can be even more challenging. Searching written material generally requires a success roll. Modifiers to all rolls to search written material: -6 for Broken written comprehension of the language of the material, or -2 for Accented; +3 if Single-Minded (p. B85), except when reading just a single tablet, page, or loose file; modifiers for Time Spent (p. B346), if taking more or less than the listed base time – but with Speed-Reading (p. B222), your base time is the standard base time divided by 1 + (skill/10).

• Finding a piece of information in a single document requires only an IQ roll to read the document. You can substitute an Administration roll for an administrative document, but at -2 if it isn’t a type with which you’re familiar. Base time is a minute for a tablet or standard form; an hour for a scroll, book chapter, or long article; or a day for a codex.

• Finding a tablet, a form or other loose page, or a folder in an entire archive requires a Research roll. You can substitute Administration in an administrative archive, but at -2 for unfamiliarity if you don’t use that specific kind of archive regularly. This assumes an archive with a catalog; roll at -5 for an organized archive without a catalog, or at -10 for a pile of random documents. Base time averages 4 hours. Actually reading the document takes negligible time, and neither requires a success roll nor modifies the archival search roll.

• Finding information in a scroll or book that’s stored in an archive follows the same basic rules. However, it’s also necessary to read the book! Rather than asking for two or more rolls, the GM should decide what kind of book is typical of the archive, add the base time for reading it to the base time for searching the archive, and apply any quality modifiers for a typical book (see below) to the modifiers for the archive to determine the overall difficulty of finding the information. Critical success means the researcher finds the exact location of the information in the document, and doesn’t need the extra time to read the document; critical failure means he finds a really fascinating book that tells him nothing about his original question.

For documents that aren’t specially prepared to aid searches, all rolls are made at -5 (quality), in addition to any applicable modifiers above. Scribes have invented numerous “devices” to assist searches and reduce or eliminate this penalty:

Colophon (TL1). A short line in the upper margin of a tablet or a page, identifying its contents. This may be a short title, the first words of the text, the name of a person it refers to, or an identifying number. Colophons on tablets or loose pages give -2 (quality) when searching an archive for the right document. Colophons on bound pages in a codex give -2 (quality) when searching for a specific topic.

Catalog (TL2). A list of books or other documents in an archive, in the form of either a codex or loose records. At TL2- 4, catalogs aren’t standardized; a new archive’s catalog gives -2 for unfamiliarity. With a familiar catalog, the roll is unmodified.

Line Numbers (TL2). A number in the margin of a scroll, a page in a codex, or a loose page such as a legal document. Not useful in searching for a topic, but can be used to find the same topic again. Roll vs. IQ to remember the line number; if you wrote it down, or someone gives it to you, success is automatic.

Table of Contents (TL2). A list of the main sections into which a long document is divided, placed at the beginning. It usually has line or page numbers. A reader can identify the right section and search only that section, saving time. Any table of contents in a scroll, or a table of contents without page numbers (below) in a codex, gives -2 (quality) to the search roll; a table of contents with page numbers gives an unmodified roll. At TL4, a book may have an analytical table of contents, with a detailed description of what’s in each chapter; this gives +1 (quality) to searches for information in the document.

Page Numbers (late TL2/TL3). A number in a standard place on the pages of a codex. This gives the same benefits as line numbers for locating a previously found topic, but for codices rather than scrolls. Page numbers make a table of contents more useful and make an index (below) possible. Index (TL3). Usually placed at the back of a codex, an index is a detailed list of topics discussed, with page numbers. Benefits are similar to those from a table of contents, but even greater: the researcher need only search 2d pages in the book. An index allows unmodified rolls to search a book; an exceptionally well-prepared index in an expensive scholarly book gives +1 (quality) to the roll, cumulative with the benefit of an analytical table of contents, if any.

At TL3, the Chinese developed block printing, in which a page of writing was carved into a block of wood. The oldest surviving printed book is a Tibetan sutra dated to 868 A.D. Europeans began using block printing around 1400.

A Chinese inventor, Bi Sheng, developed movable type – made from carved wood – in 1051. This didn’t enter widespread use until the 1400s, and coexisted with block printing long after. In Europe, movable type was invented independently, probably by Johannes Gutenberg in 1450, and became the standard printing method, although woodblocks remained in use for material such as drawings, maps, and playing cards (see Games and Toys, p. 40).

Printing Blocks (TL3). A printing block is a sheet of wood, or occasionally another material, carved into the design of a printed page. The printer rubs ink onto the design’s raised parts with a brush, lays paper on top, and runs a dry brush over the back of the paper to make it pick up the ink. This method can produce 1,500 copies per day. Each block must be carved separately, typically from pear wood. Both sides may be carved – with designs for different pages – to save money. $15, 2 lbs.

Hand-Screw Press (TL4). The real strength of this early press isn’t its speed but its ruggedness – it requires nothing more than a weighty box of type, a large hand screw, and a wooden frame. A press can turn out 250 pages per hour, but only if everything is working right; the historical average was around 1,000 pages per day. With typecase box: $2,500, 1,000 lbs.

Human societies operate on a scale larger than face-to-face encounters. Signals and messages constitute the force that binds them together. Advancing technology provides improved methods for communicating at a distance.

Visual signals need a line of sight between sender and receiver. An observer whose viewpoint is at a given height above ground level can see to the range specified in the Horizon Table. Use the Size Modifier Table to convert between height and SM.

For two individuals, add the ranges for their respective SMs. If the distance between them is less than this, they can see each other. The same applies to an observer looking for a tall mast, lighthouse, mountain, etc. Spotting a visual signal requires a Vision roll.

Modifiers: Range modifiers (p. B550); +10 for a deliberate, unmistakable signal, as it counts as “in plain sight”; at TL4, the benefits of telescopic magnification (see Spyglass); bonus for extra time (p. B346), if scanning slowly.

The following types of signals are available.

Beacon Fire (TL0). Customarily built in a high place. A TL1 society may set up a line of beacons on mountain peaks to relay a signal long distances. A typical beacon is a yard high and roughly hemispherical; add its SM +1 to Vision rolls. At night, fires become more visible; reverse the sign of the darkness penalty, giving a Vision bonus to see the fire. A beacon can carry only one message – usually “Here I am!” or “Danger!”

Smoke Signal (TL0). The most famous example of smoke signals is their use by Native American tribes. Sent by building a smoky fire with green or wet wood; covering it with a blanket can interrupt the smoke, generating short puffs or long plumes, to carry several different messages. Smoke typically rises to 500-600 yards, giving a horizon of 45 miles.

Lantern Balloons (TL3). Made from oiled rice paper on a bamboo frame, the lantern balloon was carried aloft by the heat from a wax candle burning inside it. In 15 minutes of flight, it could attain an altitude as great as 1,000 yards (SM +16; horizon 65 miles). It was used for military signaling at night, when it would get +10 to visibility. $10, 0.75 lb.

Signal Flags (TL3). Improvised use of flags and other colored signals goes back at least to TL2; for example, Greek legend tells of ships using different-colored sails as signals. In the ninth century A.D., Byzantine emperor Leo VI discussed using signal flags at sea. Western European fleets in the later Middle Ages began to use similar codes. The British admiralty standardized naval signals in 1647. A typical flag is smaller than the man carrying it (add its SM -1 to Vision rolls), but stands out from the background (+10). Prices and weights vary. Flag one man can easily carry: $50, 3 lbs.

Loud noises can carry quite far, offering a means of signaling. Auditory signals aren’t limited to line of sight; sounds can diffract around bends, corners, or the curvature of the Earth, although this may distort them.

Each sound source has a standard audibility range (about 8 yards for a shout). This is the range at which it can be heard with an unmodified Hearing roll (p. B358).

Modifiers: -1 per doubling or +1 per halving of distance, relative to audibility range; +1 for a high-pitched sound (the equipment statistics below already account for this); -1 if the listener has no line of sight to the source; +1 for multiplying the number of sources set off at once by 10, +2 for 100 sources, and so on; half the extra time bonus (p. B346), rounded down, for repetitions (+1 for at least four, or +2 for 15 or more).

A loud or monotonously repeated noise can function as an alarm. Varying rhythms or melodies can carry genuine messages: military orders, guidance for mounted hunters, etc.

This list emphasizes instruments useful for signaling. Most of these – and many others – are also used for entertainment! See GURPS Low-Tech Companion 1 for a discussion of Musical Instrument skills.

Talking Drum (TL0). The instrument used to send messages through the African jungle. It’s held under one arm and struck with the other hand; pitch is adjusted by squeezing it. Played with Musical Instrument (Tuned Drum). Audibility range: 32 yards. $40, 2 lbs.

Harp (TL1). The classic bardic instrument. Played with Musical Instrument (Harp). Audibility range: 4 yards. $600, 7 lbs.

Shofar (TL1). The horn of a sheep, used as a trumpet, as described in the Bible. Played with Musical Instrument (Horn). Audibility range: 16 yards. $80, 5 lbs.

Fife (TL2). A shrill, flute-like instrument, used by the Spartans – and by military marching bands of later centuries. Played with Musical Instrument (Flute). Audibility range: 16 yards. $100, 1 lb.

Trumpet (TL2). An early brass instrument, often long and straight rather than coiled up. Played with Musical Instrument (Horn). Audibility range: 32 yards. $200, 2 lbs.

Bagpipe (TL3). Best known in the Scots version, but forms of this instrument are found worldwide. Played with Musical Instrument (Bagpipe). Audibility range: 32 yards. $150, 8 lbs.

Church Bell (TL3). Cast from bronze, and used to summon people to worship – or to signal emergencies. No skill roll required; roll vs. ST+2 to ring loudly. Audibility range: 128 yards. Bells come in varied sizes; a 36” specimen is $20,000, 900 lbs. For other sizes, multiply cost and weight by the cube of bell height in yards. (Example: A 48” bell is 1.33 yards tall; the cube of 1.33 is 2.35. Cost is $20,000 ¥ 2.35 = $47,000; weight is 900 lbs. ¥ 2.35 = 2,115 lbs.) Doubling or halving height doubles or halves range.

Hunting Horn (TL3). Made of brass, and carried by huntsmen to signal the progress of a hunt. Played with Musical Instrument (Horn). Audibility range: 16 yards. $200, 2 lbs.

Kettledrums (TL3). Not the orchestral instrument, but a smaller one designed to be carried on a horse’s shoulders and played by the rider. Played with Musical Instrument (Tuned Drum). Audibility range: 32 yards. $250, 28 lbs.

Any literate society can record numbers by writing them down as words – assuming they have words for numbers, beyond “one, two . . . many.” But literate societies have separate systems for writing down numbers; e.g., “144” or “CXLIV” instead of “one hundred forty-four.” These come in three broad types:

Tallies (TL0) involve making a mark, commonly a line, for each object in a collection or each event in a series. Objects dating to the Paleolithic carry such marks, possibly tracking phases of the moon. A number larger than seven or eight can’t be seen at a glance, but must be counted off line-by-line. Tallies can also be matched up with objects, such as a herd of sheep, even by people who can’t count.

Nonpositional numerals (TL1) – such as Roman numerals – use signs for various numbers, which are added up (or sometimes subtracted) to get the total number that they stand for. These may be letters of the alphabet (as in the Roman, Greek, and Hebrew systems) or signs for number words (as in the Chinese system). Nonpositional numerals are useful for recording numbers, but awkward for calculation; roll vs. Accounting or Mathematics (Applied or Statistics) to solve any problem more complex than adding on your fingers.

Positional numerals (TL3) – such as Arabic numerals (actually invented in India), Babylonian cuneiform numerals, and Mayan numerals – use the same symbol for different numbers (1, 10, 100, …, or 1, 60, 3,600, …) depending on where it’s placed; such systems have a symbol for zero as a “placeholder.” This notation makes arithmetic relatively straightforward, so that it doesn’t require use of a computational skill.

It isn’t historically accurate to treat positional numerals as “more advanced” (higher TL) than nonpositional ones; both the Maya and the Babylonians went straight to positional notation at TL1. But historical GURPS campaigns will be set in Western civilization more than any other – and the West acquired positional numerals only at TL3. Treat civilizations that went straight to positional numerals as “advanced in mathematics.”

For a more-detailed treatment of computation, see GURPS Low-Tech Companion 1.

Many societies have tools for making arithmetic faster or more accurate. Using these devices requires a computational skill and familiarity with the specific device.

Abacus (TL2). A frame, usually wood, that holds beads strung on wires. The beads are moved back and forth to represent calculations. Positional relationships are built into it. People who use nonpositional systems, such as Roman numerals, can calculate on an abacus without a skill roll if they have points in Accounting or Mathematics (Applied). Anyone experienced with an abacus can calculate faster than with pencil and paper, in any notation. $50, 2 lbs. A collection of pebbles laid out on a flat surface can be used as an improvised abacus at no cost, but is much slower to use due the care needed to avoid mixing up pebbles.

Cube Root Extractor (TL2). Ancient Greek engineers designing catapults (see Mechanical Artillery, pp. 78-83) needed to take the cube root of a stone’s weight to determine the engine’s dimensions. The cube root extractor is a mechanical device invented in the third or fourth century B.C. to solve this problem. It has several rods set at angles to each other, one of which slides back and forth. By making a rough initial guess and positioning the rods accordingly, the exact cube root could be measured. Using it requires Mathematics (Applied). $25, 2 lbs.

Napier’s Bones (TL4). This is a set of numbered rods, one for each digit from 0 to 9, showing the multiplication table for that digit, plus an 11th rod for the multiplier. By arranging the rods, it’s possible to read off the product of a multi-digit number by any single-digit number. Several sets may be needed if the multi-digit number has repeated digits! Not as fast as a slide rule (GURPS High-Tech, p. 18), but able to produce results with any desired number of digits. Only works with positional numerals. Using it requires Mathematics (Applied or Statistics). One set, with a wooden box (5“x2.5”x1“): $25, 0.5 lb.

Navigation is the scientific approach to finding your way, used mainly at sea in low-tech societies. The skill of determining a ship’s position or of setting its course on a map or a chart – or in geometrical coordinates, such as latitude and longitude – is Navigation (Sea); see p. B211. Coastal and open-sea navigation use this skill somewhat differently.

Few TL0 societies use abstract concepts of location. Instead of Navigation, they rely on Area Knowledge (pp. B176-177) – that is, personal familiarity with a specific body of water. (River and harbor pilots in present-day societies still employ this skill!) This can’t substitute for all applications of Navigation. Notably, it’s seldom useful out of sight of land; thus, most TL0 societies avoid such voyages. Treat TL0 peoples with long-distance seafaring, such as the ancient Polynesians, as “advanced in a science” for this purpose.

A ship’s navigator may have to deal with four different questions:

1. Where are we? A ship’s location can be defined either by its visible surroundings (“San Francisco Bay”) or in terms of map coordinates (“37°46’ N, 122°14’ W”). Area Knowledge can substitute for Navigation in the first case but not the second. This roll is most often needed when a ship has sailed off course (e.g., during a storm).

2. Where are we going? If a ship’s voyage has a known destination, a navigator can identify this. Doing so depends on the available reference materials, not on a Navigation roll. Navigational information for an obscure destination may require a Research roll – or be the starting point for an adventure!

3. How do we get there? Plotting courses is a navigator's primary job. If the point of departure and the destination are both known, a successful Navigation roll identifies the fastest route. Add 10% to travel time per point of failure. Critical failure means the ship encounters a navigational hazard or gets lost.

For an unknown point of departure or an unknown destination, make a Navigation roll at -4 to guess the best heading. Success means the ship ends up in a known or worthwhile location (e.g., it makes landfall after being lost at sea); critical success may send the ship to a rich port, an island paradise, or a hidden pirate haven, if the GM wishes! Failure indicates the ship gets nowhere in particular. Critical failure means it encounters a hazard – or gets lost, if it wasn’t already. If the ship starts at an unknown point, any success also identifies its location.

The basic difficulty of these Navigation rolls depends on the voyage’s hazards:

Weak opposing current; single rock or shoal: 0

Strong opposing current; weak current carrying you toward a hazardous shore; several widely spaced rocks or shoals: -1

Strong current carrying you toward a hazardous shore; multiple closely spaced rocks or shoals; narrow passage between bodies of open water: -2

Multiple closely spaced rocks or shoals; narrow passage with weak currents carrying you out of the safe channel: -3

Multiple closely spaced rocks or shoals; narrow passage with strong currents carrying you out of the safe channel: -4

In unknown waters, extra care must be taken to identify hazards. If this isn’t done, double these penalties! In all cases, coastal navigation is easier than open-sea navigation, as there are only two headings to choose from. Make these rolls at +2.

4. Are we on course? Normally this requires no skill roll; any trained navigator can answer this automatically. If a ship has no trained navigator, roll against Seamanship.

There are several methods of performing these tasks. Equipment modifiers often apply to these.

This is the oldest form of Navigation, practiced since TL1, and the only one for which Area Knowledge can substitute at TL0. Position is identified by landmarks, usually visually. Such Navigation is often Per-based, and Vision modifiers – including the use of a spyglass (p. 42) – can aid or hinder it. While normally limited to coastal navigation, it can be applied to open-sea navigation if there are predictable currents, winds, or changes in the water.

Landmark recognition involves only rough measurement of distances (by days of travel) and headings (from the sun, stars, or prevailing winds). Courses can’t be charted with any precision; Navigation is at -3, and has no Astronomy default. If the sky can’t be seen at all, Navigation is at -5.

Merkhet (TL1). An ancient Egyptian device, made from a slitted palm-leaf. Used in good weather to observe the pattern of stars moving across a plumb line, it reduces the Navigation penalty to -2 by determining direction more accurately. $10, neg. Easily broken (DR 0, HP 1, and Fragile), it’s normally carried in a hardwood case: $10, 1 lb.

Windrose (TL2). A rectangular box with 30 compass points around its exterior, each corresponding to the rising or setting of one of 15 fixed stars. Different models are required for the northern and southern hemispheres. Reduces the Navigation penalty to -1 in good weather. $25, 1 lb.

Sunstone (TL(3+1)). The Viking expansion (700-1100 A.D.) relied on extraordinarily skilled navigation. Some readers have interpreted a few lines from the sagas as hints at an unusual technology: use of the naturally polarized mineral cordierite to determine the sun’s location on cloudy or foggy days, or when the sun is just below the horizon (for about a quarter-hour after sunset). The Navigation penalty under these conditions is -3 rather than -5. $30, 1 lb.

Stick Chart (TL1). Developed in the Marshall Islands by the ancient Polynesians, these charts used curved and diagonal sticks to represent currents, and cowry shells to signify islands. They weren’t actually taken to sea, but were used to train navigators in memorizing vital information. Studying one reduces the penalty for an uncharted destination to -2. For a navigator with Eidetic Memory, there’s no penalty. $300, 10 lbs.

Periplus (TL2). Used by the Phoenicians, Greeks, and Romans, this is a scroll that describes destinations and landmarks, and approximate distances between them, along a shore. A rutter (TL3) is similar, but in the form of a bound book. A typical periplus or rutter reduces the penalty for an uncharted destination to -2; one of good or fine quality makes that -1 or 0. As with all books, price and weight are variable.

Used in ancient Egypt, the sounding pole provides a way to judge depth in shallow waters. It’s thrust into the water at the prow of a boat to feel the depth of the bottom. This avoids the doubling of hazard penalties – but only in shallow rivers and lakes. It remains useful in more-advanced forms of navigation. A 12’ pole: $40, 4 lbs.

Developed in the ancient Mediterranean, this is a 50-yard line with a wax-coated lead weight at the end. It’s thrown over the side to determine depth by length markings along the rope. Together with keeping a lookout, this avoids doubled hazard penalties in unfamiliar waters. The wax coating sticks to the bottom material, bringing up samples; examining these gives +1 to Navigation to identify a vessel’s location, if references describing bottom materials are available. It remains useful in more-advanced forms of navigation. $175, 30 lbs.

Dead reckoning (short for “deduced reckoning”) is the first quantitative navigation method. It becomes possible at TL2 and is in general use by TL3. It allows Navigation rolls with no penalty for lack of precision, and can be used to identify a ship’s position on a grid of latitude and longitude.

Dead reckoning requires keeping track of a ship’s heading and speed, and the duration of each leg of a voyage, and figuring out how far it traveled and in which direction. This information is used to plot its position on a chart. There’s still no Astronomy default.

Basic equipment for dead reckoning includes a reliable timekeeping device (usually a sandglass; see Timers, p. 45), a compass, a chip log, charts (like the portolan, below), and a set of dividers.

A “compass” in the geometer’s sense: two rods connected by a stiff elbow joint at the top, held at a specific angle and used to trace circles and arcs. In navigation, it’s used to calculate distances on a chart. It’s part of basic equipment for dead reckoning. $5, neg.

First developed in China and later introduced to the Near East and Europe, a compass has a magnetic needle that points to magnetic north (or, in China, magnetic south). There are two versions:

• Magnetized needle to float in water (requires a bowl or dish of water). Allows unmodified Navigation rolls. $5, neg. • Magnetized needle on a pivot. Gives +1 to Navigation rolls. $25, 1 lb.

It’s possible to judge headings astronomically without a compass, if the sky is visible: -1 to Navigation to steer by the pole star, or -2 by other stars or by the sun.

Developed in medieval Europe, a portolan is a large, bound reference book holding not only descriptive text, but charts of coasts with cities marked on them (see Maps and Globes, p. 45). From each city, lines marked with compass headings go out to other cities; thus, use requires a compass (above). A typical portolan eliminates the penalty for an uncharted destination; one of good or fine quality gives a bonus of +1 or +2. Many navigators treated their portolans as secret documents, not wanting to share the information with rivals. Without one or more such charts, dead reckoning can’t be used to sail to a known destination, although it can still be used to chart a voyage to an unknown one (-4 to Navigation). As always for books, price and weight are variable.

Invented around 1500, this is a long cord on a reel, with knots every 42’ and a wooden float at the end that’s weighted with lead so that it always floats the same way up. The float is tossed off the stern and the cord is allowed to unreel. The number of knots that unreel in 30 seconds is the ship’s speed in nautical miles per hour, or “knots.” Used to estimate speed; forms part of basic equipment for dead reckoning. $175, 55 lbs.

As early as TL1, cruder measurements were made by throwing a piece of wood off the stern and estimating its distance by eye. This is free but less accurate: -1 to Navigation.

Celestial navigation uses precision instruments to determine a ship’s exact position by observing the sun and stars.

This is Navigation as defined on p. B211, with a default to Astronomy-5. It emerges at TL3 with the development of instruments to measure latitude – although it isn’t fully developed until TL5, when invention of the ship’s chrono meter allows precise measurement of longitude (see GURPS High-Tech for relevant gear and rules).

The limited form of celestial navigation used at TL3 is “running down the line.” If the ship’s current location and destination are known, the Navigation roll is at +2 because – as with coastal navigation – there are only two directions to choose between. If either is unknown, the penalty is -2, not -4, for the same reason, and a successful roll determines the ship’s exact latitude as well as setting a course. The navigator requires the equipment for dead reckoning and one of the following instruments, which further modifies the roll:

Astrolabe (TL3). See p. 43 Used with a cross-staff (p. 43). Gives -1 (quality) to skill for celestial navigation.

Kamal (TL3). See p. 43. Gives -1 (quality) to skill for celestial navigation.

Sun Shadow Board (TL3). A crude version of a quadrant, developed by the Vikings (700-1100): a semicircle of wood mounted on a handle. Gives -2 (quality) to skill for celestial navigation. $20, 10 lbs.

Quadrant (TL4). See p. 43. Used as a navigational tool since the 1400s; Columbus’ log records using one. Counts as basic equipment for celestial navigation. (The sextant, which appears at TL5, gives +1 (quality) to skill.)

The printing press was a pivotal development of TL4. Sometime around the mid-15th century, somebody – possibly Johannes Gutenberg – developed the technique of making multiple copies using movable type. With a hand-screw press, one man could turn out 250 impressions an hour, which might be many pages of book or newspaper. That man, with less than half a ton of equipment, could transmit a point of view to thousands of people . . . if they could read. With the advent of printing, literacy went from being a luxury to a necessity. Printed works remained the standard means of information storage through TL7.

Printing Technology (TL4)

After its invention, the printing press evolved relatively little until the mid-19th century. The speed of these early presses limited the output of any one printer, encouraging diversity of production. Any city – and most towns – could support at least one printer. As literacy increased, so did the demand for newspapers and “job printing” (posters, handbills, waybills, pamphlets, flyers, etc.). One possible job for an adventurer is that of “tramp printer.” Anyone who can compose and set up type – using Professional Skill/TL (Typesetter) (IQ/A) – can find employment. It’s an excuse to travel without being branded a vagrant or a ne’er-do-well. The trade lasts well into the opening years of the 20th century.

Hand-Screw Press (TL4). The real strength of this early press isn’t its speed but its ruggedness – it requires nothing more than a weighty box of type, a large hand screw, and a wooden frame. 250 pages per hour. With typecase box: $2,500, 1,000 lbs. LC4.

Rotary Press (TL5). A rotary press’ cylinders are much faster to crank than a hand screw. 1,000 pages per hour. With typecase box: $5,000, 1,000 lbs. LC4.

Steam-Powered Rotary Press (TL5). A gargantuan rotary press that uses rolls of paper. It cuts and folds newspapers automatically. Requires a crew of 10 men, plus a steam engine (p. 14) for external power. 12,000 pages per hour. $15,000, 10 tons, external power. LC4.

Offset Printing Press (TL6). A large, electrically powered press. 5,000 pages per hour. $30,000, 1 ton, external power. LC4.

Offset Printing Press (TL8). A high-tech printing press capable of producing full-color, photo-quality output on glossy paper. 10,000 pages per hour. $30,000, 800 lbs., external power. LC4.

Books (TL5)

“I cannot live,” Thomas Jefferson once wrote, “without books.” He acquired many thousands of books during his lifetime, twice selling off the most extensive private library in the United States at the time. On the first occasion, he sold over 6,000 volumes to replace the 3,000 volumes of the Library of Congress burned by the British in the War of 1812. His library was broad-based, and included works in Latin, French, and Italian, on topics as diverse as history, law, and the sciences.

Adventurers who need to do research or learn a new skill will likely turn to books. For the purpose of Speed-Reading (p. B222), assume that the average person reads 250 words per minute. A letter-sized page of printed, single-spaced text contains about 500 words. Handwritten text is approximately one-quarter as dense.

Books can sometimes replace expert knowledge. The GM may count reading a suitable reference work or following a repair manual’s instructions while actually performing a task as the equivalent of using a skill at default – even if the reader would normally get no default! Roll against the attribute-based default appropriate to the skill’s difficulty: attribute-4 if Easy, attribute-5 if Average, attribute-6 if Hard, or attribute-7 if Very Hard. Extra time gives the bonuses under Time Spent (p. B346), but these can at most remove the default penalty. This usually only works for IQ-based technical skills, but the GM may let suitable works – esoteric manuscripts, unspeakable tomes, magical spellbooks, etc. – enable default use of other skills. A generous GM might even apply Quick Learning Under Pressure (p. B292) afterward.

A typical book weighs 1-5 lbs., a large dictionary like Webster’s Unabridged weighs about 12 lbs., and a monstrous tome could weigh up to 25 lbs. At TL8, many “books” are computer data files; professional archivists estimate that an average book contains 10 MB of data. At any TL, prices range from free to hundreds of dollars for technical and reference texts.

A scholar under attack might use a book to ward off blows. This may save the defender, but it seldom does the book any good! Treat a large book as an improvised light or small shield (DB 1). It has DR 1-4 for cover purposes, depending on thickness.

Blank Book (TL5). A journal or diary. Higher-quality versions have a nicer cover. Holdout -1. $15, 0.5 lb. LC4.

Notebook (TL6). A pocket-sized book with a few dozen pages. At TL8, higher-quality versions have waterproof paper. Holdout -1. $1, 0.1 lb. LC4.

Libraries (TL5)

The personal library has long been the mark of a learned man. In 1790, George Washington’s library exceeded 900 volumes – mainly on law and agriculture – and was approximately one-tenth the size of Harvard College’s.

A library can be a useful tool for adventurers. The GM may allow a suitable library to serve as the curriculum when learning or improving a skill (see Self-Teaching, p. B293). Generally, the higher the skill levels involved, the more extensive the required library.

A library can also act as a reference for a skill – or for a skill specialty, if the skill allows or requires specialization (see p. B169). It permits Research rolls to look up answers to questions germane to that skill, possibly at a bonus for quality. The bonus for a high-quality library might sometimes extend to the skill itself, at the GM’s option. Read the skill’s description, in particular its specialties, to assess the breadth of a particular library; e.g., one could have a library for History (20th- Century Military) but not for History in general. If using a library for research outside its area, apply the modifiers under Geographical and Temporal Scope (p. B176) to Research rolls.

Many “libraries” are actually sizable collections on diverse topics stored in one place. Most public libraries would count as a basic library (see below) for dozens of subjects. A higher-quality library might be the sort of “special collection” found at a large university, and cover only a single, narrow field.

How big is a library? Librarians measure the size of a collection by the amount of shelving it occupies, in linear feet. A 7’-long bookshelf stacked eight shelves high is 56 linear feet. Average book count is 8-12 per linear foot. The Library of Congress is reckoned to be the largest library in the world, at nearly 3 million linear feet – over 530 miles of shelving. See the Data Storage Table (p. B472) for another way to compare library and database sizes.

Below, the listed price assumes a mundane skill. Libraries for magical research, Hidden Lore, etc., may cost 100 times as much, if they’re available at all.

Small Collection. Perhaps a dozen works on a single topic. This is “improvised equipment”; if the GM allows a Research roll, it should be at -2 or worse. $350, 25 lbs. per skill.

Basic Library. A large shelf or small bookcase (approximately 10 linear feet) covering a particular field. Allows a basic Research roll on it topic. $3,500, 250 lbs. per skill.

Good Library. A couple of bookshelves (approximately 50 linear feet). Gives +1 to Research. $17,500, 1,200 lbs. per skill.

Fine Library. A dozen large bookshelves (several hundred linear feet). Gives +2 to Research. $70,000, 5,000 lbs. per skill.

Office technology has a somewhat humbler purpose than a tricked-out assault rifle or the newest encrypted radio, but even the most macho soldier knows that the technology of “bean-counters and clerks” brings efficiency and order to endeavors to which it’s applied.

Business Cards (TL5)

Victorian gentlemen began the modern tradition of business cards by leaving “calling cards” that bore their name, address, and often a photo, drawing, and/or personal statement or motto. Better homes collected these in a book displayed near the front door, turned to the page containing the card of the most notable visitor. At TL8, business cards might be miniature CDs or DVDs, or digital files attached to e-mail or beamed from one PDA to another. Either type could contain encrypted national secrets – or a virus or other malicious software. Paper business cards are $1 per 100; CD or DVD versions cost about $0.50 each.

Calculators (TL5)

Totaling and tallying numbers is as important to a businessman or a scientist as bullets are to a soldier. Devices that facilitate this are part of the basic equipment for Accounting, Administration, Finance, and many scientific skills.

Slide Rule (TL5). Earlier versions existed, but the first commercially available “rules” appeared at the beginning of the Industrial Revolution and were used by carpenters, builders, and even Watt himself. Slide rules grew in functionality and standardization until they became the symbol of engineers and scientists – much like the stethoscope among physicians or the spyglass for military officers. Slide rules accompanied the Apollo astronauts. They only fell into disfavor in the mid-1970s, as the pocket calculator came on the scene. Even at TL7, a slide rule is part of the basic equipment for many scientific skills. $50, 0.5 lb. LC4.

Adding Machine (TL6). This mechanical gadget performs only basic arithmetic: addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Its columns of buttons represent cents, dimes, dollars, tens of dollars, etc.; another button or lever selects the mathematical function. When ready to calculate, the operator cranks the handle and the machine prints the result on a slip of paper. $500, 60 lbs., LC4.

Desktop Adding Machine (TL7). Transistors let the desktop calculator shrink to the size of a small typewriter. Integrated circuits make it even smaller – about as large as a paperback book. Basic four-function models appear first, followed by “electronic slide rules” capable of logarithmic functions. A typical 1970s desktop calculator: $300, 5 lbs., external power. LC4.

Scientific Calculator (TL8). A solar-powered pocket calculator. Contemporary units are about as small as they can be. The size limit is set by the operator, who must push the buttons and read the display! $30, 0.2 lb. LC4.

Letter Copiers (TL5)

In the age before automatic typewriters (p. 19) and photocopiers (p. 19), making a copy of a letter was a tedious process.

Copying Press (TL5). A letter-copying press was a common sight as late as the 1950s. The operator takes the letter to be copied and – without blotting it (the ink must still be wet) – puts it in the press. He then places a damp sheet of thin tissue on top of the letter and tightens the press. After a few seconds, he removes both the letter and the copy tissue. This makes one copy of the letter, and only a handful of copies are possible before the ink on the original dries completely. Each copy takes about 30 seconds. $100, 15 lbs. LC4.

Roller Letter Copier (TL6). This hand-cranked roller can make multiple copies of a freshly inked letter. As the device is cranked, the copies are rolled onto a continuous sheet of dampened paper, which is stored under the roller apparatus until it dries. The copies can then be unrolled and cut into individual sheets. $250, 50 lbs. LC4.

Writing Supplies (TL5)

These items can often be found in an office or briefcase.

Paper (TL5). Paper was made of linen or cloth scraps until TL6, when steam-powered presses switched to wood pulp. Paper dropped from a historical price of nearly $6 a pound at TL5 to $0.50 a pound at TL6. At TL8, a ream (500 sheets) of letter-sized paper is $2, 5 lbs. LC4.

Quill (TL5). A peacock- or goose-quill pen is the most common early writing instrument. A “pen knife” is used to trim the worn nib. Later models have metal nibs. $0.50, neg. LC4.

Carbon Paper (TL6). A typewriter can make up to 10 copies simultaneously using carbon paper. $0.10, neg. LC4.

Fountain Pen (TL6). This pen stores ink in a rubber bladder. It’s filled using an eyedropper or by dipping the nib in ink and releasing pressure on the bladder. It’s a messy and cantankerous device, but it can squirt ink (or another liquid . . .) up to a yard away – which can be a useful distraction. $3, neg. LC4.

Paperclip (TL6). The first commercial paperclips appeared around 1900. A pair of paperclips counts as improvised equipment (-5) for the Lockpicking skill. Box of 500: $1, 0.25 lb. LC4.

Ballpoint Pen (TL7). The first leak-free ink pen was sold in the 1940s. Ballpoints rely on capillary action rather than gravity feed. $0.50, neg. LC4.

“Space” Pen (TL7). A ballpoint pen that can write in vacuum, zero-gravity, underwater, and upside down. Uses a pressurized ink cartridge with a 100-year shelf life. $25, neg. LC4.

Duplicators (TL6)

Duplicators create copies from specially treated “masters,” which last for about 500 duplicates. The mimeograph forces ink through a stencil. The spirit duplicator (“ditto machine”) uses solvents to print from inked masters; its aromatic duplicates are familiar to school kids through TL7. A hand-cranked version of either averages 10-20 copies per minute, factoring in time spent fussing with it. $20, 25 lbs. LC4. Motorized models are 10 times as fast and as costly, and require external power.

Typewriters (TL6)

The first practical typewriter was available commercially in the United States in 1874. After 1880, typing is always a marketable skill. After 1900, it’s practically a necessity for office employment – journalism, law, and many other professions require at least hunt-and-peck familiarity with the typewriter. For further details, see the Typing skill (p. B228). With the typewriter come new ways to gain unauthorized access to records. Used carbons, discarded drafts, and even the piece of paper typists commonly roll around the platen can yield information. A successful Forensics roll can determine whether a specific machine was used to type a particular document.

Typewriter (TL6). The familiar QWERTY keyboard dates to the early 1870s. The “shift” key was perfected in 1878, allowing lowercase (earlier models typed only in capitals!). Visible-line typing came into use in the 1880s, previous to which the typist had to lift the carriage to see what he had typed. $20, 20 lbs. LC4.

Portable Typewriter (TL6). A lighter, smaller machine. Has a protective case with storage space for paper and supplies. $35, 6 lbs. LC4.

Electric Typewriter (TL6). A major feature of these typewriters is that several can be connected in series, allowing one operator to type several letters at once. Halve weight and cost at TL7. $250, 35 lbs., external power. LC4.

Automatic Typewriter (TL6). A mainstay of large corporations and military headquarters from the 1920s through the 1950s, the automatic typewriter tackles form letters and other repetitive work. It requires a special perforating typewriter that creates the roll – similar to that of a player piano – from which it reads and types the letter. Speed is 150 words a minute. $750, 50 lbs., external power. LC4.

Electronic Typewriter (TL8). A typewriter with memory, it stores dozens of pages of prerecorded text and recalls them at the touch of button. $200, 15 lbs., external power. LC4.

Photocopiers (TL7)

Chester Carlson worked for 15 years on xerography (Greek for “dry writing”) before he finally produced a commercial product in 1950. The photocopier took off, selling 6,500 units over the next six years. Photocopying revolutionized the business world by simplifying and streamlining correspondence among decision makers.

Photocopier (TL7). Copies half a dozen pages per minute. $15,000, 650 lbs., external power. LC4.

Desktop Photocopier (TL8). A portable version that produces a dozen copies a minute. It can also print directly from a computer. $500, 30 lbs., external power. LC4.

Photocopier (TL8). Photo-quality copier that produces dozens of copies per minute. It can be networked to print from a computer. $6,500, 300 lbs., external power. LC4.

The first electronic computers were built in the 1940s. Distant descendents of electromechanical tabulators, these behemoths required tons of wiring and vacuum tubes, squandered power, and generated vast amounts of heat. They also solved complex mathematical problems faster and more accurately than humans could. The transistor (in the 1950s) and then the microprocessor (in the 1970s) greatly increased the speed of computers while simultaneously reducing their size and power consumption.

In the 1950s, only the government and big business could afford the gigantic computers of the day. By the 1980s, anybody in the developed world could buy a more powerful computer for less than a month’s pay, and it would fit on a desktop! Programs such as word processors and spreadsheets increased the productivity of accountants, writers, and desk-jockeys of all descriptions.

Roll against Computer Operation (p. B184) to use a computer. Success lets you find information, access files, solve problems, and generally use a familiar system to the limits of its capabilities. Higher skill levels mostly reflect familiarity with more varieties of software and hardware. Computer design and repair call for Engineer (Electronics) and Electronics Repair (Computers), respectively.

Penalties for unfamiliar equipment (see Familiarity, p. B169) are crucial here. Assess a -2 to skill for each of an unfamiliar operating system (e.g., Mac OS to Windows), computer type (e.g., tiny to mainframe), or program (e.g., targeting program to database). For obsolete or advanced equipment – say, a 1990s operator faced with UNIVAC – apply Tech-Level Modifiers (p. B168).

See also p. B472 for general computer rules and terminology.

Computer Types

These entries describe computers at TL8. For earlier TLs, select a model that’s available at that TL and apply the effects of one of the options under Alternate Technologies (pp. 20-21). Storage capacity (e.g., typical integral harddrive space – or at lower TLs, attached magnetic tape systems, punch-card libraries, etc.) is given in gigabytes (GB) at TL8. Reduce this to kilobytes (KB) at TL7, bytes at TL6.

Tiny Computer (TL8). The smallest multi-purpose computer available (e.g., a PDA). It’s often built into another gadget, such as a cell phone. Complexity 1. Stores 1 GB. $50, 0.04 lb., 2S/5 hrs. LC4.

Small Computer (TL8). A typical palmtop or notebook computer. Complexity 2. Stores 10 GB. $100, 0.4 lb., M/5 hrs. LC4.

Medium Computer (TL8). A laptop or desktop PC, typical of those found in middle-class homes or small businesses. Complexity 3. Stores 100 GB. $1,000, 4 lbs., M/2.5 hours. LC4.

Microframe Computer (TL7). A cabinet-sized machine, rack of servers, etc. Complexity 4. Stores 1,000 GB (1 TB). $10,000, 40 lbs., external power. LC4.

Mainframe Computer (TL6). A computer capable of providing control and systems-monitoring functions for a major business, manufacturing complex, or laboratory. Complexity 5. Stores 10,000 GB (10 TB). $100,000, 400 lbs., external power. LC4.

Macroframe Computer (TL6). A powerful mainframe, typically the property of a government agency, major corporation, or university. Complexity 6. Stores 100,000 GB (100 TB). $1,000,000, 4,000 lbs., external power. LC4.

Megacomputer (TL6). A massive computer complex that fills a whole building or a series of subbasements. Complexity 7. Stores 1,000,000 GB (1,000 TB). $10,000,000, 20 tons, external power. LC4.

Customizing Hardware

Several options exist for customizing computers. These modify the Complexity, cost, etc., of the basic hardware. Multiply cost factors together, and do the same for weight factors; e.g., hardened (¥2 cost) and fast (¥20 cost) together give ¥40 cost. Complexity modifiers are additive.

Compact (TL7). The computer uses lighter, more expensive components. ¥2 cost, ¥0.5 weight.

Hardened (TL7). The computer is designed to resist electromagnetic pulse (EMP), microwaves, etc. Add +3 to HT against these effects. ¥2 cost, ¥2 weight.

High-Capacity (TL7). The computer can run 50% more programs simultaneously (e.g., three programs of its own Complexity). ¥1.5 cost.

Fast (TL8). The computer uses cutting-edge technology, giving it capabilities equivalent those of a system one size larger. May not be combined with slow. +1 to Complexity. ¥20 cost.

Slow (TL8). The computer uses inexpensive processors, or is of an older design. May not be combined with fast. -1 to Complexity. ¥1/20 cost.

Alternate Technologies

When designing a TL6-7 computer, you must select one of these options. If Complexity is below 0 after all modifiers, design a larger computer!

Mechanical or Electromechanical (TL6). This represents the primitive calculating machines of the 18th century. Charles Babbage’s mechanical computer was designed to use gears, levers, and switches to process data. -5 to Complexity.

Vacuum Tube (early TL7). The first vacuum-tube computers were built in the 1930s and 1940s. Compared to integrated circuits, vacuum tubes are large, fragile, unreliable, and require prodigious amounts of power. It isn’t uncommon for one or more tubes to fail whenever the power is switched on! Troubleshooting often involves crawling inside and looking for blown tubes – which can take hours or days. On the other hand, this kind of computer is considered hardened (see above) at no extra cost. -4 to Complexity.

Transistor (TL7). Transistor computers are smaller, faster, and more reliable than vacuum-tube machines. -3 to Complexity.

Terminals

A computer requires at least one terminal. At TL7 especially, it’s possible that users might have terminals only, and rent time on networked systems.

Primitive Terminal (TL6). This encompasses all varieties of paper-tape readers, typewriter-like card punches, automatic card sorters, and blinking display panels. A task performed on primitive terminal may take an hour or more simply to set up. Deciphering the results takes several minutes of sifting through the output. $5,000, 500 lbs., external power. LC4.

Workstation Terminal (TL7). A standard desktop or office workstation, with a keyboard and a monitor (monochrome at TL7, color at TL8). It may include other accessories: mouse, speakers, microphone, digital camera, etc. Home systems at TL8 are generally medium computers with workstation terminals. Halve terminal weight. $500, 25 lbs., external power. LC4.

Portable Terminal (TL8). A reduced-scale but fully functional keyboard and color video display. It includes accessories such as a wireless communicator for networking, a digital mini-camera, and a speaker/microphone. It’s adequate for most tasks, but the GM may rule that timeconsuming or graphics-intensive tasks require a workstation terminal (above) to avoid a -1 penalty. It doesn’t require a separate power source, instead tapping a small amount of power from the attached computer. Notebook and laptop computers at TL8 are typically small or medium computers with portable terminals. $50, 0.5 lb. LC4.

Datapad (TL8). A terminal for a PDA – including a tiny color video screen, a folding or laser-projection keyboard, and the accessories listed for a portable terminal (above). Complex tasks or those requiring use of the keyboard and screen for lengthy periods (GM’s option) are at -2 to skill. Powered by the computer to which it’s attached. $10, 0.05 lb. LC4.

Peripherals

For game purposes, a “peripheral” is an interface device used to interact with a computer.

Computer Printers (TL7)

Early TL7 printers are monsters cobbled together from other devices. Desktop printers appear at TL8.

Printer (TL7). A teletypewriter modified to print computer output. $2,500, 200 lbs., external power. LC4.

Desktop Printer (TL8). An inkjet printer or similar. Halve weight and double cost for a portable model. $100, 10 lbs., external power. LC4.

High-Quality Printer (TL8). Fine-quality laser or “dye-sub” equipment. Good enough for use with the Counterfeiting or Forgery skill. $5,000, 50 lbs., external power. LC4.

Document Scanners (TL8)

Scanners use a digital imager to turn a hard copy into an electronic file.

Document Scanner (TL8). A flatbed scanner. Good-quality (¥5 cost) or fine-quality (¥20 cost; essential for Counterfeiting or Forgery) equipment scans faster and at higher resolutions. $25, 2 lbs., external power. LC4.

Document Scanning Pen (TL8). An 8”¥0.5” stick that scans a document as it rolls across a page (takes 4 seconds a page). It can be used on its own, storing 100 pages in memory and recharging when plugged into a computer. $150, 0.1 lb. LC4.

Head-Up Display (HUD) (TL8)

A HUD is a video display integrated into glasses or a helmet visor. It gives +1 to such skills as Driving or Piloting, where quick reaction to information is vital. The headworn display weighs only a few ounces, but connects to a control unit and battery pack on the waist. $5,000, 1.5 lbs., 4¥S/4 hrs. LC4.

Data Storage

Computers are assumed to be able to read and write removable storage media of their TL.

Primitive Storage (TL6)

Programs or data stored on punch cards, paper tape, and so on. Such storage is easily damaged or destroyed by nesting rats, coffee spills, etc. A 1,000 KB data archive is $20, 4 lbs. LC4.

Magnetic Tape (TL7)

The whirring tapes and blinking lights of magnetic tape drives are commonly associated with TL7 computers, but magnetic tape is still used at TL8 because of its high density-to-cost ratio.

Magnetic Tape (TL7). A large reel of tape about the size of a hubcap. Holds 1-3 MB of data. Holdout -5. $100, 7 lbs. LC4.

Magnetic Tape (TL8). A tape cartridge the size of a deck of cards. Holds about 200 GB. Holdout -1. $50, 0.5 lb. LC4.

Magnetic Diskettes (TL7)

The two most popular diskettes at TL7 and early TL8 are the 5.25” disk and the 3.5” disk. They’re vulnerable to strong magnetic fields, which can destroy the data. Hold from 100 KB to 1.44 MB. Holdout 0. $0.50, neg. LC4.

Optical Disks (TL8)

All TL8 computers are assumed to have a CD and/or DVD drive (GM’s option). Disk capacity ranges from 650 MB to 8 GB. Holdout 0. $1, neg. LC4.

Digital Storage Device (TL8)

This is a small, nonvolatile memory chip. Many computers and electronic devices have a port for connecting to such media. Ranges from the size of a postage stamp (Holdout +4) to the size of a cigarette lighter (Holdout +1), and can be built into a variety of gadgets – even watches (pp. 31-32) and pocketknives (p. 31). A typical model costs $25 per GB of storage (or fraction thereof). Weight is negligible.

A computer can be programmed to do almost anything, but good programming is expensive. Individual programs are rated for TL and LC – like other technology – and for their Complexity, which determines what systems they can run on (see p. B472). A program’s TL and Complexity, in turn, set its cost; see the Program Cost Table, below.

The prices on the table assume professional and specialized software, such as engineering programs and targeting systems. In reality, software may cost a lot to develop but little to distribute. Mass-market software – computer games, popular operating systems, etc. – are cheaper, as the development costs are spread over a huge user base. Such programs may cost as little as 10% of these prices, or even be available as freeware. The actual cost of other software can vary greatly as well, depending on its nature and provenance (shareware, pirated, demo, open-source, etc.). At the GM’s option, free versions (legal or otherwise) of almost any program may be available.

Descriptions of several programs appear in later chapters; e.g., Encryption (pp. 210-211). To write your own software, use Computer Programming (p. B184). Tech-Level Modifiers (p. B168) always apply to this skill! A master of punched-card programming from 1955 would boggle at today’s techniques; his skill would be about as relevant as flint-knapping.

IQ-based technological skills (p. B168) at TL7+ normally require software to function at full effectiveness when performing tasks involving research, analysis, or invention.

Software tools exist for many other skills at TL7+, too, including Accounting, Artillery, Engineer, Market Analysis, Research, and Writing. Such tools come in the usual quality grades (see p. B345):

Basic programs are necessary to perform the skill at its TL, and give no bonus. They’re Complexity 2 for Easy skills, Complexity 3 for Average, Hard, or Very Hard skills.

Good-quality programs give +1 to skill. They’re Complexity 4 for Easy skills, Complexity 5 for Average, Hard, or Very Hard skills.

Fine-quality programs give +2 to skill. They’re Complexity 6 for Easy skills, Complexity 7 for Average, Hard, or Very Hard skills.

Software tools designed for highly specific applications of a skill – including but not limited to tasks that would be covered by techniques (p. B229) – may be one or more Complexity levels lower. This is very common at TL6-7!

A database is a collection of information in computer-readable form, with built-in search and indexing programs.

Estimate database size using the Data Storage Table (p. B472). For a database of a given size, the wider the subject covered, the sparser the details.

Database cost ranges from free for the information bundled with any system to millions of dollars for proprietary data, secrets, specialized information, or intelligence that cost lives or money to gather. Cost doesn’t correlate so much with size as with information quality, copyright, supply, and demand. An encyclopedia or a similar item might be free for download or cost from $1 to $100.

One computer is a powerful tool, but multiple computers are even more impressive. A network is two or more computers connected by telephone, radio, or cables. Linked computers are assumed to be able to communicate – but before TL8, or between unfamiliar computers, this is idealistic! If the plot turns on whether computers can communicate, the GM may require Electronics Repair (Communication) and Computer Operation rolls to deal with hardware and software incompatibilities, respectively.

The Internet is a global network of networks that connects people from far-flung corners of the Earth in ways previously unimagined. Its most visible part is the World Wide Web: billions of interlinked documents, both stored and generated on demand. These documents are often interactive, and tie together audio-visual content and such Internet applications as electronic mail, voice and video conferencing, and file- and resource-sharing.

A network can be made secure by using encryption software (p. 211) in concert with civilian protocols and software. Information is encrypted at one end, sent over the network, and then decrypted. Encrypted traffic might be routed over the normal Internet or over a completely isolated network. The U.S. military’s Secret Internet Protocol Router Network (SIPRNET) is an example of such a network. “Sipper” links the U.S. military commandand- control complex. Lieutenant General Tommy Franks used it to conduct daily videoconferencing with President George W. Bush throughout the 2003 Iraq War.

The primary benefit of the Internet is accessibility of information. However, too much information can be overwhelming. It’s difficult to know which sources are believable – or deliberately false! Search engines help, but these have their own limitations; they often censor websites or direct users toward sites that pay for the extra traffic. The end result is that the Internet is simply basic equipment for Research/TL8.

A database (p. 22) might provide a bonus in a narrow area, depending on design and content – but most databases are basic equipment, too. Better databases and search tools (see Software Tools, p. 22) count as good or fine equipment for Research. Standard bonuses and cost modifiers apply; see p. B345. Internet-based tools typically charge a monthly fee in addition to or instead of the software cost.